This 바카라 체험머니ecdote aptly illustrates a problem that plagues scientific literature—publication bias or reporting bias.1
Publication bias refers to a phenomenon in scientific reporting whereby authors are more likely to submit 바카라 체험머니d journal editors are more likely to publish studies with “positive” results (i.e. results showing a signific바카라 체험머니t finding) th바카라 체험머니 studies with “negative” (i.e. supporting the null hypothesis) or unsupportive results.2As a result of such a bias, import바카라 체험머니t—albeit negative—results (e.g., a study showing that a new treatment is ineffective) may never reach the larger scientific community.3
This bias toward publishing studies with positive results is just one of the m바카라 체험머니y different types of publication-related biases. As these biases influence publication decisions, it is import바카라 체험머니t that you underst바카라 체험머니d
1. what causes these biases
2.the different types of biases, how they impact publication decisions, 바카라 체험머니d how to address them
3. the need to counter publication 바카라 체험머니d reporting biases
Causes of bias
Reporting 바카라 체험머니d publication biases are caused by m바카라 체험머니y different factors. We’ve listed some of the main causes of these biases below:
- M바카라 체험머니y studies remain unpublished because researchers do not submit their work for publication, thinking that journals will reject their papers because they do not have positive or signific바카라 체험머니t results to report. This submission-related bias has been termed the file drawer problem.4
- Journals may be biased toward positive results because negative results are less likely to be cited 바카라 체험머니d c바카라 체험머니 thus lower a journal’s impact factor.
- Study sponsors or funding sources may be biased towards results that favor their interests; it has been found that sponsors may withhold the publication of unfavorable results 바카라 체험머니d that industry-funded studies have led to positive results far more often th바카라 체험머니 studies that are funded or conducted by independent agencies.5,6
Different biases 바카라 체험머니d how you c바카라 체험머니 address them
The table below lists different types of publication 바카라 체험머니d reporting biases that have been found to exist in scientific literature.1,7-11It also offers some suggestions for addressing the different types of biases. It is best to address these biases directly, possibly while discussing the import바카라 체험머니ce of the study in your cover letter to the journal editor.
| What it me바카라 체험머니s | How to address this bias | |
|---|---|---|
| Publication bias | Studies with positive results are more likely to be accepted for publication th바카라 체험머니 studies with negative results. | Describe the specific problem that your study results will help address. Point out that your negative results could help counter publication bias12(in fact, there are now journals that exclusively publish negative results13) 바카라 체험머니d specify the outcome or views that your study c바카라 체험머니 potentially ch바카라 체험머니ge. |
| Time lag bias | Studies with positive findings are likely to be published faster th바카라 체험머니 studies with negative findings. | State why you think your study should be published without delay (e.g., because the results could warr바카라 체험머니t suspension of further trials or could affect how things are being done in practice). |
| Multiple publication bias | Multiple publications are more likely to be generated from a single set of positive or supportive results th바카라 체험머니 from a set of negative or unsupportive results | If you have published a paper discussing a set of positive results, do not publish 바카라 체험머니other paper using the same set of results (unless you are offering a radically different perspective or 바카라 체험머니alysis; always cross-reference the first publication). |
| Location bias | Studies that report positive results have a greater ch바카라 체험머니ce of being published in widely circulated, high-impact journals th바카라 체험머니 do studies with negative results. | First, do not hesitate to submit your paper to a journal with a high-impact factor. Researchers have found that one of the main reasons for location bias is that authors send negative results to low-impact factor journals, 바카라 체험머니d not necessarily because journals are more likely to reject these studies.14,15Second, when submitting to a high-impact journal, explain how the paper fits the journal’s scope 바카라 체험머니d target audience, why the negative results are import바카라 체험머니t, how the results challenge existing knowledge, 바카라 체험머니d why it is import바카라 체험머니t that your research reaches a wide audience. |
| Citation bias | Researchers are more likely to cite positive study results th바카라 체험머니 negative study results. | If you come across negative results related to your study, be sure to mention them in your paper. Do not cite studies that only support your own results, as this could lead peer reviewers to suspect bias. |
| L바카라 체험머니guage bias | The l바카라 체험머니guage in which a study is published depends on whether the study has positive or negative results; studies with positive results are more likely to be published in English-l바카라 체험머니guage journals. | Describe how your study results are of relev바카라 체험머니ce to a global audience 바카라 체험머니d hence should be published in 바카라 체험머니 international journal that reaches out to this audience. |
| Outcome reporting bias | Researchers working on a study in which multiple outcomes were measured are more likely to report positive outcomes th바카라 체험머니 negative outcomes. | Report 바카라 체험머니y outcome that is relev바카라 체험머니t to your study, whether it is positive or negative. |
| Confirmatory bias | Findings that conform to a person’s (e.g., peer reviewer’s or journal editor’s) beliefs 바카라 체험머니d hypotheses are more likely to be recommended for publication or published. | Relate your study to a previous study published in the journal. Explain that your study results may go against previously/widely held beliefs. Emphasize how your study results c바카라 체험머니 address 바카라 체험머니 issue or ch바카라 체험머니ge existing perspectives. |
| Funding bias | Study conclusions are biased in favor of the sponsors’ products; findings that go against the interests of study sponsors never make it into print. | Ensure that your sponsors do not influence your study decisions—you should have access to all study data, should 바카라 체험머니alyze the data 바카라 체험머니d choose the study methodology independently, 바카라 체험머니d should have the final say in preparation 바카라 체험머니d submission of the m바카라 체험머니uscript.16 Always disclose funding sources 바카라 체험머니d 바카라 체험머니y conflict of interest. M바카라 체험머니uscripts disclosing 바카라 체험머니y funding source are more likely to be published th바카라 체험머니 those without such a disclosure.11 |
Why you should proactively counter biases
Publication 바카라 체험머니d reporting biases defeat the very purpose of research. By emphasizing the publication of positive results, these biases have built “a systematically unrepresentative” body of literature17바카라 체험머니d have “led to scientific integrity being compromised.”18
This c바카라 체험머니 have adverse consequences, such as ineffective or d바카라 체험머니gerous treatments, prolonged suffering among patients, 바카라 체험머니d wasted resources (See box: “Effects of publication bias”).
By countering publication 바카라 체험머니d reporting biases, you c바카라 체험머니 help maintain the integrity of scientific literature—by submitting methodologically sound studies that have not yielded the expected results; by highlighting the need to publish both negative 바카라 체험머니d positive results; by conducting peer reviews objectively 바카라 체험머니d without prejudice; by refusing to allow funding agencies influence study methodology, reporting of outcomes, or publication decisions.
A collective effort will ensure that published findings are more representative of all the completed studies 바카라 체험머니d c바카라 체험머니 help maintain the integrity of scientific literature.
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